A Brief Look at the History of English

　　The history of English is conventionally(按慣例), if perhaps too neatly(巧妙地), divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant(占優勢的) class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact(沖擊) on the lexicon(詞法), and the well-developed inflectional(詞尾變化的) system that typifies(代表) the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed(轉化) English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance(相似) between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric's "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries(傳教士) to convert(使...改變信仰) the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome.

　　A few of these words will be recognized as identical(一致) in spelling with their modern equivalents(對應詞) -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, wære to were, wæs to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, 'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven.' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbað (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," ðeode "people, nation," cwæð "said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, þ, called "thorn," and ð, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th.

　　Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects(方面) of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted(倒裝) after an adverb -- þa cwæð he "Then said he" -- a phenomenon(現象) not unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate(復合句) clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: þe hi of comon "which they from came," for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað "because they angels' beauty have."

　　Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric's sentences is the elaborate(細微) system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case(格), and number: ðære ðeode "(of) the people" is feminine(女性的), genitive(屬格的), and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine(男性的), accusative(賓格的), and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative(與格的), and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbað "have" ends with the -að suffix characteristic(特性) of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative(祈使) forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains(保留) a particular category(范圍) of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above).

　　The period of Middle English extends roughly(大概) from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (often to a final unstressed(非讀的) vowel spelled -e) accelerated(加強), and many changes took place within the phonological(音韻的) and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose(散文) has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction(小說) in the guise(外觀) of travel literature, and, though it purports(主旨) to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract(摘錄) Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited(居住) by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."

　　The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent(不一致) within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], þanne and þan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance(統治) of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.

　　In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more þan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative(主格的) þei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English.

　　The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology(音韻學) of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed(再分散) the occurrence(發生) of the vowel phonemes(音素) to something approximating(接近) their present pattern. (Mandeville's English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing(固定) effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive(不同的) dialects(方言) of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions(貢獻) to our word-stock.

　　The historical aspect of English really encompasses(包括) more than the three stages(階段) of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory(史前的) as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists(語言學家) know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors(祖先) of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon(詞法), phonology(音韻學), grammar, and semantics(語義學) as best they can through sophisticated(先進的) techniques of comparison developed chiefly(主要地) during the last century. Similarly, because ancient and modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated (指定)Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants(后代) cover a fair portion of the globe.


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